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Russian Scholars on Ismailism / Ed. by Stanislav Prozorov, Hakim Elnazarov. St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg State University
Faculty of Philology; Nestor-Historia Publishers 2014. 312 p., ill.
In December 2011 the Institute of Ismaili Studies (London, UK) and the Institute
of Oriental Manuscripts, RAS (St. Petersburg) held an international conference on
the contribution of Russian scholars to the study of Ismailism (including the Ismailis of
the Pamirs) on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the birth of the prominent Russian
Iranist, W. A. Ivanow (1886–1970). The conference was attended by scholar representing
research and educational institutes in Russia, Tajikistan, the United Kingdom and Canada.
The conference materials form the basis of the proposed collection of articles.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Институт исмаилитских исследований — 9
The Institute of Ismaili Studies — 11
Предисловие — 13
Introduction — 19
WLADIMIR IVANOW
AND MODERN ISMAILI STUDIES
Farhad Daftary. Wladimir Ivanow and Modern Ismaili Studies — 24
Until the middle of the twentieth century, the Ismailis were
studied and evaluated almost exclusively on the basis of evidence
produced, or often fabricated, by their detractors. As a result,
a host of myths and misrepresentations circulated for centuries,
both in Muslim societies and in Europe, regarding the teachings
and practices of this community of Shiʿi Muslims. A breakthrough
in the study of the Ismailis occurred in the 1930s and
1940s as a result of the recovery of a relatively large number of
genuine Ismaili texts — manuscript sources that had been preserved
secretly in numerous private collections mainly in the
Yemen, Syria, Central Asia and South Asia. Wladimir Ivanow
(1886–1970), who settled in India after the Russian Revolution,
played a key role in the initiation of modern progress in Ismaili
studies. This paper presents the historical development of
Ismaili studies and W. Ivanow’s major contributions to this fi eld
of Islamic studies.
Boris Norik. W. Ivanow’s Collection in the Archives of the Institute
of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences:
A Short Survey — 38
The name of Wladimir Alekseevich Ivanow represents
a milestone in the history of the Asiatic Museum (currently
known as the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts). Although Ivanow
worked only three years at the Asiatic Museum, he managed to
accomplish a great deal. His collection is kept in the Archive of
Orientalists, numbered as 19 fi le. It has to be noted that the organisation
of the collection is currently incomplete and most of
the material is in a state of disarray. The most organized is Inventory
1, which includes 68 documents, most of which are on the
history of Sufism and Ismailism, Shi‘a sects and Iranian dialects.
The academic value of the documents varies, as many include
short summaries of monographs and reference books which were
popular at that time. Inventory 2 includes Ivanow’s personal
letters, which are also of great interest, with the list of his correspondents
containing the names of such great scholars as
K. G. Zaleman, V. A. Zhukovskiy, A. A. Romaskevich and others.
In addition, some materials of the collection are not projected
in any of the Inventories, and await their technical processing
and academic evaluation. At present, it is possible to assert that
V. A. Ivanow’s collection has potentially significant value for
academic work, and will be particularly appealing to specialists
on the history of Sufi sm and Ismailism, as well as to philologists
who study Iranian dialects. This paper presents the survey of
the Ivanow’s collection and its value for the orientalists.
Alexey Khismatulin. The Teachings of the Ahl-i Haqq in the Studies
of Wladimir Ivanow — 45
In 1953, Wladimir Ivanow published some original texts
representing the teaching of the Ahl-i Haqq in the Ismaili Society
Series under the title of The Truth-worshippers of Kurdistan.
Ahl-i Haqq texts. There he provides the English translation and
narrations of the texts. On the basis on these materials and using
also the publications of V. F. Minorsky (the fi rst orienta list who
studied the subject), Ivanow produced solid research preceding
the publication of the texts. He attempted to summarise, analyse
and systematize all the available information related to the
teachings of Ahl-i Haqq at that time, when very little scholarly
information on the topic existed. The article discusses the content
of the texts and Ivanow’s approach to the analysis of
the teaching of Ahl-i Haqq.
Aliy Kolesnikov. The Correspondence of W. A. Ivanow and H. Corbin
(1947-1966) (Pages from the History of the Ismaili Society) — 53
The correspondence between Wladimir Ivanow and Henry
Corbin was published 12 years ago, but it has not yet received
a due attention. Of the 89 letters in this collection, 65 from
Ivanow are addressed to Corbin, 9 to Corbin’s wife (Stella
Corbin), and one to the French diplomat F. Max; 13 letters are
addressed to Ivanow from Corbin, and there is one letter to him
from Louis Massignon. The content of the correspondence reveals
much about the two scholars, as it is quite diverse but
concerns, for the most part, purely professional issues: the activities
of the Ismaili society; the gathering, copying and publication
of major works of Ismaili authors; the exchange of
academic literature; visits to Ismaili settlements, places connected
with the history of Ismailism, Ismaili shrines, etc. The impressions
and opinion of Ivanow regarding his participation in
the International Congress of Orientalists and the meeting of
his contemporary scholars is especially interesting, as it provides
his opinion about Iranian and Islamic Studies and his contacts
and exchanges with Russian and Soviet orientalists. This paper
makes a careful examination of the correspondence.
ISMAILI PHILOSOPHY IN RUSSIAN SCHOLARSHIP
Ramazon Nazariev. The Contribution of Russian Scholars
to the Study of Ismaili Philosophy and Theology, and Prospects
for its Development — 64
The study of Ismaili philosophical doctrines has been undertaken
by many famous scholars. Amongst these scholars,
a special role is given to Russian orientalists. Starting from
the second half of the 19th century, during their travels across
various regions of the Near East and Central Asia, the Russians
collected valuable materials about the culture of the people
associated with the Ismaili faith. These materials included data
about philosophical and theological doctrines, which subsequently
became the foundation for the study of this rationalistic
philosophical school. In this paper, the issue relating to the
contribution of the Russian scholars in the study of Ismaili
philosophy and theology is examined in historical context.
It highlights the following periods of the study of Ismailis and
their teaching:
— The Pre-Soviet period. The specifics of the philosophical
world-views of the Ismailis are summarised on the basis of the
collected materials of the Russian orientalists, such as, Count
A. A. Bobrinskoy, A. A. Semenov, V. V. Bartold, W. A. Ivanow
and others.
— The Soviet period. The main historical and philosophical
works are analysed, including their main content and importance
for the modern scholarship. The authors of such works are
A. E. Bertels, A. K. Zakuev and others.
— The Post-Soviet period. The highlights of this period are
the works produced by E. A. Frolova, A. V. Smirnov, A. A. Ignatenko
and others. Here we discuss the latest developments in
Ismaili studies in Russia and explore the commonality and
differences in methodological analysis of the Ismaili philosophical
heritage. The paper ends with presenting of the prospects
for further development of the field.
Sunatullo Jonboboev. The Ismaili Notion of History in the Context
of the Broader Philosophy of History — 74
There are certain philosophical notions, the importance of
which becomes evident only over a period of time and in comparison
to other notions (i. e., when they are placed in the context
of world’s traditions), such as the idea of our understanding the
history. The concept of the philosophy of history is taking an important
place among other ideas of the Ismaili tradition (including
Ikhwan as-Safa’). However, in the author’s opinion, this idea has
not been suffi ciently examined by contemporary scholars -
the few exceptions being H. Corbin (1964, 2010), Kh. Dodikhudoev
(1987, 2011), and F. Daftary (2008). This article is based
on the reading and analysis of the works of the Ismaili philosophers,
as well as the generalisations and evaluations of the Russian,
Soviet and foreign scholars, who have devoted their work to Ismailism.
Such generalisations serve as a foundation for a comparison
of the current concept of Ismaili history with other known,
similar theories related to the philosophy of history.
Alexander Arapov. The Concepts of the Universal Intellect and
Universal Soul in Russian Religious Philosophy and Ismailism — 93
The Platonic concepts of the Universal Intellect and Universal
Soul are common to both Ismaili philosophy and the Russian
religious philosophy of the Silver Age (the period between 1880
and 1920, which was characterized by the emergence of various
intellectual movements in Russia), whilst being quite alien to
classical Christian philosophy. Despite the influence of Neo-
Platonism on the formation and development of Christian philosophy,
the concepts of the Universal Intellect and Universal
Soul were rejected by the Western and Eastern Christian theologians
and philosophers. The concept of the Universal Intellect
and the animation of the world were widely adopted in Muslim
philosophy. The Russian philosophers belonging to the Christian
faith were exposed to these ideas and developed a cosmological
framework which was much closer to the Ismaili teaching than
to Christian theology. This paper explores the subject in detail.
RUSSIAN SCHOLARS ON THE ISMAILIS OF CENTRAL ASIA
Hakim Elnazarov. The Russian Pioneers of Modern Scholarship
on the Ismailis of Central Asia — 101
The Ismaili Muslims of Central Asia have been generally
absent from the discussion on the beliefs and doctrines of the
Ismailis presented by Western scholarship until the last decade
of the nineteenth century. It was, by and large, due to the pioneering
works of the Russian orientalists that the religious beliefs
and traditions of the Ismailis of Central Asia, particularly those
residing in the narrow valleys of the Pamir mountains, received
due attention and were introduced into modern scholarship on
the Ismailis. At the same time, the discovery of Ismaili literature
from Central Asia contributed to a reassessment of the tales and
legends written about the Ismailis by other Muslims and the
Crusaders. The Russian scholars and explorers of the Pamirs,
such as, Bronislav Grabczewsky, Dmitriy Ivanov, Aleksey Bobrinskoy,
Adrian Serebrennikov, Aleksandr Semyonov, Andrey
Snesarev, Ivan Zarubin and others, initiated systematic research
into the history, and religious and intellectual traditions of the
Central Asian Ismailis. Wladimir Ivanow, the founder of modern
Nizari Ismaili studies, belongs to the same generation of
Russian scholars who fervently pursued the exploration of Ismailism
and inspired the future generation of scholars of diverse
backgrounds to study the history, traditions and the heritage
of the Ismaili Muslims. This paper provides a general overview
of the emergence of Ismaili and Pamiran studies in Russian
scholarship.
Davlat Khudonazarov. Count Aleksey Bobrinskoy — the Founder
of Modern Ismaili Studies in Russian Scholarship — 123
The current paper is devoted to the commencement of Ismaili
studies in Russian scholarship. The pioneer of Ismaili
studies in Russian domains was A. A. Bobrinskoy, an ethnographer
and specialist in cultural studies. Furthermore, in this
Russian scholar, we actually have the pioneer of modern Ismaili
studies in European scholarship. During the 1920s,
W. Ivanow’s stated that “the modern state of Ismailism in Asia
does not attract much attention of European researchers of the
East”; he further observed that European scholars were not
making any effort to study this branch of Islam. Therefore,
the author of this paper argues that Count Bobrinskoy’s publication
of 1902 was the fi rst Russian, and in fact, the fi rst
European, study on Ismailism.
Shozodamamad Mamadsherzodshoev. The Contribution of Russian
Scholars to the Collection and Studies of the Written Heritage
of the People of Mountainous Badakhshan — 152
Starting from the second half of the nineteenth century, Russian
orientalists began the systematic compilation, collection,
description and publication of the most valuable manuscripts
found in the Pamirs. This written heritage has paramount importance
in the study of the history and spiritual life of the people
of Tajikistan and Central Asia in general. Some of the manuscripts
found in Badakhshan served as foundational texts for
the critical edition of the works published in Russia and abroad.
A wide range of materials was collected in the region by
Russian scholars, which provides insight into the way of life of
people of Badakhshan. A. Bobrinskoy, A. Andreev, W. Ivanow,
I. Zarubin, A. Semenov, A. Bertels and others made a signifi cant
contribution in the study of the history, culture, ethnography
and linguistic diversity of the inhabitants of the Pamir. Their
works exhibit the richness of the culture of the local people and
the value of their written heritage for academic scholarship. For
many generations, calligraphers and scribes rewrote works of
various genres which contained a variety of materials about the
people of the region. Some manuscripts are of artistic and calligraphic
value. This article describes the main stages of the
study of the written heritage of Badakhshan and the role played
by the Russian scholars in the collection and investigation of this
heritage.
APPROACHES TO THE ISMAILI STUDIES
Sarfaroz Niyozov. A Comparative Analysis of W. Ivanow’s and
A. Bertels’ Works on Nasir-i Khusraw and Ismailism: Toward
Rethinking Central-Asian Ismaili Studies — 160
Despite post-Soviet advancement in Central-Asian Ismaili
Studies, Wladimir Ivanow and Andrey Bertels have remained
foundational in this fi eld. However, because of the opposing
ideological camps in which these two scholars found themselves,
their impact has been limited to their own spheres of infl uence.
In this paper, I advocate a re-examination of the ideological
positioning of both authors, arguing that each played a critical
part within the contexts and constraints of their times. Their
respective works, both entitled ‘Nasir-i Khusraw and Ismailism’,
constitute examples of this role. These works are Ivanow’s and
Bertels’ committed and independent intellectual constructs and
are the result of skilful negotiation between (i) their knowledge,
values, and skills and (ii) the ideological and structural constraints
and possibilities of their times and (iii) their conceptual
and methodological tools such as access to data. I further
argue that a critical comparative re-reading of both authors’
dedicated and meticulous studies of Ismailism and Nasir-i Khusraw
can provide us with nuanced, contested, evolving, and
negotiated notions of Nasir-i Khusraw and Central-Asian Ismailism:
an understanding that is better informed, de-essentialised,
pluralistic, and constructivist.
Lola Taneeva-Salomatshоeva. The Contribution of A. E. Bertels
to Ismaili Studies — 209
This paper presents the outstanding contribution of A. E. Bertels
to the Ismaili studies. His contribution is particularly visible
in the study of the manuscripts which were found in GBAO
(GornoBadakhshan Autonomous Region) of Tajikistan during
the expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1959-
1963). His works on the Ismailism demonstrate his encyclopaedic
erudition in Islamic studies, various religious system, literature
and history of Muslim states, which allowed him to
conclude that the meaning of the term “Ismailism”, if taken in
its abstract form and deployed in relation to specifi c branches,
has existed since the eighth century until modern times, and it
has been used as frequently as terms, such as, “Christianity”,
“Islam”, or “ Shi‘ism”. The current paper considers the polemics
which took place between Bertels and W. A. Ivanow. It also
analyses certain treatises (e.g., Taj al-‘Aqa’id, Zad al-Musafi rin,
Jami‘ al-Hikmatayn), which are discussed in his work «Пять
философских трактатов на тему ‘Afaq va Anfus’» (Five
Philosophical treaties on the subject of ‘Afaq va Anfus’).
Elbon Hojibekov. The History of the Ismaili pirs of Shughnan
in the Works of Russian, Soviet and Contemporary Scholars — 218
The Russian and Soviet scholars made signifi cant contribution
to the study of the religious and cultural life of the people
of the Pamir. A large corpus of literature was produced about
the cultural life of the people of the region since the beginning
of the twentieth century. However, little work was done on the
study of the Ismaili pirs (spiritual authorities) of the Mountainous
Badakhshan. The studies of the scholars in the pre-Soviet,
Soviet and post-Soviet periods contain contradictory and prejudiced
comments on this subject. The author of this paper
examines the major issues in the history of the Ismaili pirs of
Shughnan district of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region
of Tajikistan as presented in the works of Russian and Soviet
scholars, such as, Count A. A. Bobrinskoy, A. Cherkasov,
A. A. Semenov, A. V. Stanishevskiy, A. A. Kuznetsov, B. A. Antonenko,
M. Nazarshoev, D. Karamshoev, I. Kharkavchuk,
as well as contemporary scholars, including L. N. Kharyukov,
A. Shokhumorov, and others.
HISTORICAL SOURCES AND MONUMENTS
Stanislav Prozorov. The Arabic Manuscript of an Unknown Treatise
of al-Mufaddal al-Ju‘fi (d. before 183/799) on Early Shi‘a Doctrine — 229
The Institute of Oriental Manuscripts (Saint Petersburg)
holds an Arabic manuscript (1b-85a) of an unknown treatise of
al-Mufaddal al-Ju‘fi entitled, Kitab al-Adilla ‘ala’l-khalq wa’ltadbir
wa’l-radd ‘ala’l-ka‘ilina bi’l-ihmal wa’l-munkiri al-‘amd
bi-riwayat al-Mufaddal ‘an al-Sadiq. This is an instruction of
Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765) to a Shi‘i muhaddith, al-
Mufaddal al-Ju‘fi , as an individual training to propagate Shi‘i
ideology and explaining to him a wide range of arguments
in refutation of specifi c or potential opponents.
The work belongs to the period of acute religious and political
struggle in the Caliphate, which gave rise to a specialization
of religious knowledge, the formation of genres of Shi‘i
religious and political literature and the development of a Shi‘i
dogma in the circle of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq.
The key idea of the teachings of Ja‘far al-Sadiq is as follows:
a human being must understand that all elements of the macroand
microcosm testify to the divine rule (al-rububiyya), the premeditation
of creation of intent, the purposefulness and harmony
of the created world. To prove his point, Ja‘far al-Sadiq
gives examples from the natural world, from astronomy, wildlife,
the diversity of species, the shapes and colours of creation
which are hidden in the bowels of the earth and visible on its
surface, comparing these to the human intellect, in which there
is knowledge which is obvious and knowledge which is hidden.
Taken together, these ‘proofs’ show Ja‘far al-Sadiq’s
encyclopedic knowledge of human nature and the surrounding
world.
Another key idea of Ja‘far al-Sadiq’s instruction is that the
management of the world and the divine presence on the ground
is ongoing, and that the guardian and interpreter of the secret
knowledge of the universe, which is laid down in the Qur’an,
is ‘the family the Prophet’ (ahl al-Bayt). Further development
of this original idea is observed in Shi‘i Islam, which maintains
that a visible proof (al-hujja) of the divine presence on earth is
to be a mediator between God and men.
The term al-hujja is used in the teachings and practices of
the Ismailis. The notion of al-hujja took a fi rm place in the
dogma of the Shi‘a Imamis, who argued that the land cannot be
deprived of al-hujja of the descendants of ‘Ali b. Abi Talib,
‘visible’ or ‘hidden’ ones who would govern the community by
the will of God. They recognized the twelfth ‘hidden’ Imam
Muhammad b. al-Hasan as the last al-hujja.
Rahmat Rahimov. Shi‘a Objects of Worship in the Sunni Environment
of Central Asia — 241
Information on the objects of worship of the Ahl al-Bayt
(immediate family members of the Prophet) within the Sunni
environment of Central Asia is fragmentary and dispersed in
various sources in Russian literature. They do not provide a sufficiently clear view about the role and place of Shi‘a Islam within the general system of the local Muslim religiosity. Particularly,
there is a noticeable scarcity of research about the
mythology of ‘Ali. b. Abi Talib (d. 661), the first Imam of the
Shi‘a Muslims. The main question here is, how, during such
a short period of time (in the historical scale), did the fi gure of
a historical personality turn into a hero of myths and legends
among the local Sunni population?
The present paper does not claim to provide a clear-cut
answer to the above question. It only highlights possible ways
of understanding the motives for the mythologisation of the
personality of ‘Ali, who has been turned into one of the main
personages of fantastic stories and tales of the Sunni Tajiks.
This paper attempts to enrich, as far as possible, the insufficient
information in the existing ethnographic literature by supplementing
it with missing pieces of information. The presented
data, according to the author, makes it possible to observe concrete
manifestations of the elements of coexistence of the two
branches of Islam — Sunni and Shi‘a — within a single religious
complex in the given region. These manifestations are directly
related to the sources of such specific city in the Central Asian
regional Islam. The work draws on the field-work data that the
author collected from the settled agricultural population of
Central Asia. At the core of the collected materials are the oral
traditions transmitted by the Sunni Tajiks about the eponyms
of the ritual objects of Shi‘a Islam within Central Asian Sunni
environment.
Tohir Qalandarov. On a Letter of B. A. Litvinskiy Addressed
to the Head of the Tajik Regional Branch of the Soviet Culture
Foundation — 256
This article draws on a letter from the personal archive of
the prominent orientalist, founder of the archaeological school
of Tajikistan, and member of the Academy of Sciences of the
Republic of Tajikistan, Boris Anatolievich Litvinskiy (1923-
2010). In the personal archive of Litvinskiy, the author of this
paper found a copy of a letter which was addressed to the head
of the Tajik republican department of Soviet Culture Foundation,
the poetess Gulrukhsor Safi eva. The letter has been typed on
three pages with A4 format without indication of the date. It is
known that the Tajik Culture Foundation was established as
regional branch of the Soviet Culture Foundation in a founding
conference held in Dushanbe on the 28th of April 1987. In his
letter, the scholar actually outlined an action plan for the Tajik
Culture Foundation, drawing attention to what has been most
important for him — the protection and restoration of the architectural
monuments. Regrettably, most of Litvinskiy’s recommendations
were not taken into account by the leadership of the
Foundation.
STUDY OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE
OF THE PAMIRS
Leila Dodykhudoeva. A Fragment of Linguistic “World View”
of the Peoples of the Western Pamirs. Landscape — 266
This article discusses the fragment of the linguistic world
view of the peoples of the Western Pamirs. This fragment is
characterised by lexis which expresses the notion of “space and
landscape” as it is connected with the human habitat, in terms
of the worldly and sacral spheres, man’s modes of organising
his landscape and the related general daily activities and religious
traditions. Identification of this “world view” on the basis of
vocabulary reflects a conceptual categorization of reality by the
ethnic group.
The absence of a fixed written form of the Pamiri languages
creates a specific linguistic situation, whereby the language itself
serves as the main monument, representing a verbal part of the
cultural heritage of the people. It reflects the formation of the
society and may serve as a means for discovering the stages of
the development of spiritual and material culture. At the same
time, the language has key words which are indicative of a specific culture and which underlie the system of steady implications
and perceived meanings of the words in a language and culture.
The analysis of these words allows us to reveal the wide cultural
context of the development of a nation.
Pavel Basharin. Legends on al-Hallaj in the Pamirs: the Problem
of the Transformation of the Image of the Sufi Saint in the Context
of Sufi Hagiography — 288
The fi gure of Mansur al-Hallaj is distinguished from a large
number of charismatic Muslim mystics for its originality and
popularity among the Iranian and Turkic nations of Central Asia.
The reason for this probably resides in the assumption that
al-Hallaj was the fi rst well-known Muslim saint who came to
Turkestan. The pervasiveness of the Islamic image of al-Hallaj
is emphasized by its spread to the periphery of the Muslim world,
including to the Pamirs. Among the Ismailis of the Pamirs, he is
revered as a forebear of the holy “forty chiltans” (forty saints).
There is also a curious legend of his execution in the Pamirs.
One of the fi rst fi xations of the legend about al-Hallaj is
recorded in the book of A. A. Bobrinskoy Gortsi verkhovyev
Pyandzha (vakhantsi i ishkashimtsi) (Mountain Dwellers of the
Upper Reaches of River Panj (Vakhanis and Ishkashimis) (Moscow,
1908)). The subsequent collection of material on the subject53
allows the reconstruction of a full version of the saint’s
life as disseminated in the Pamirs. This version shows the range
of interpretations and elaborations of the classical incidents
from the hagiography of al-Hallaj and local substrate stratifi cations,
which are comparable to the recorded texts on the lives
of Sufi saints, including Akhbar al-Hallaj, ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari,
Farid al-Din ‘Attar, Zakariya al-Qazwini, etc.
Boghsho Lashkarbekov. The Study of the Pamiri Languages
in Russia and Tajikistan — 301
Although the pioneers of the study of the Pamiri languages
were Western European researchers, the Russian and Soviet
(including Tajik) specialists in Iranian studies have also
made significant contributions to the study of these languages.
The works of European pioneers of Pamiri studies, such as,
Robert Shaw, V. Tomashek, V. Gager, G. Grierson and others,
who laid the foundation for studies in Pamiri languages, were
only able to draw on insignificant linguistic materials, which
were mainly recorded as nonphonological transcriptions. Starting
from the 1930s, Russian scholars began systematic studies
of the Pamiri languages, conducting special linguistic expeditions
for this purpose, and working in the fi eld for a long period
of time. These expeditions included linguistics from academic
centres in Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Dushanbe.
They were instrumental in the emergence of a school of Pamiri
Studies which was headed by Prof. Ivan Zarubin. This paper
presents the development of the study of Pamiri languages
in Russia and Tajikistan.
List of Authors — 309
List of Illustrations — 311
 PDF-files
Contents, The Institute of Ismaili Studies, Introduction
Keywords
Ismailism
Pamir
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